The Fall of the Soviet Union: A turning point in global geopolitics

The Russia-Ukraine War and other evolving global conflicts can be traced back to the enduring legacy of the Soviet Union’s collapse and its impact on contemporary geopolitics. But what were the internal factors and external challenges that led to the collapse of the Soviet Union? 

On December 25, 1991, the Soviet hammer and sickle flag lowered for the last time over the Kremlin, marking the dissolution of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). It was a watershed moment in history that not only dismantled a superpower but also brought about a seismic shift in global geopolitics. 

The Soviet Union had its origin in the Russian Revolution of 1917, which ended the rule of the Romanov dynasty (1613-1917). The Romanovs were an autocratic monarchy, with the Tsar (an emperor of Russia before 1917) holding absolute power over the government, military, and society. Protests and strikes against autocratic rule, rising inequality and the worsening economic situation began from March 8, 1917 onwards – coinciding with February 23 in the Julian Calendar that was still used in Tsarist Russia, hence famous in history as the February Revolution. 

The protests culminated in the ouster of Tsar Nicholas II on March 15, 1917. Subsequently, a Provisional Government, dominated by social-democratic leaders, was established. But the Provisional Government had to share power with the Petrograd Soviet or “Workers’ Councils” that simultaneously came up across the empire. However, disagreements between the Petrograd Soviet, dominated by socialist factions like the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks, and the Provisional government continued to deepen. 

Meanwhile, Vladimir Lenin, the Marxist leader living in exile, returned while the Bolsheviks gained majority support in the Petrograd Soviet. In September 1917, Leon Trotsky became Chairman of the Petrograd Soviet, strengthening the Bolshevik position. On November 7, 1917 (25 October in the Julian calendar), Lenin and Trotsky together led the first truly Communist Revolution, famous in history as the “October Revolution”, when the Red Army stormed the Palace in Petrograd (present-day St. Petersburg) and arrested the leaders of the Provisional Government. 

Lenin declared the thesis of “all power to the Soviets” and was subsequently appointed as the Head of the Soviet Government. However, the Red Army had to fight a bloody battle against the White Guards (conservatives) and other anti-Bolshevik forces. The conflict lasted until 1922, with the Red Army ultimately emerging victorious. On December 30, 1922, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was formally declared, marking the establishment of the first communist state in history.

After the initial chaos, the Bolsheviks or the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) eliminated rival ideologies, transforming Soviet Russia into a one-party state. They sought to reshape polity, society, and human thought in line with Marxist-Leninist ideology. Consequently, they emerged as influential political innovators of the 20th century, introducing new, unique institutions, socio-political vocabulary and mass mobilisation strategies. 

Historian Peter Kenez aptly noted, “Their legitimacy was not to be based on popular sovereignty, but on the conviction that they understood the movement of history. They stood for a better, socialist future for mankind.”

The policies of “war communism” (the economic and political policies implemented by the Bolshevik government during the Russian Civil War between 1918 and 1921) ushered in the nationalisation of industries, while Lenin’s New Economic Policy in 1921 sought to stabilise the economy and address growing unrest. The Soviet Union also implemented the Five Year Plans and forced collectivisation of agriculture, which helped it in emerging as an industrial superpower within a few decades. In addition, the Soviet regime also introduced progressive measures such as universal education, healthcare, equal rights to women, alongside massive cultural and literacy campaigns.

Notably, the Soviet state’s governance blended party and government functions, often overlapping in responsibilities. The Council of People’s Commissars served as the government’s executive branch, but it derived its power from the CPSU and its cadres. Mass organisations like the Komsomol (youth organisations), Zhenotdel (women’s organisation), trade unions and others acted as “transmission belts”, connecting the party to the people and serving as a tool of feedback mechanism.

The rules of Soviet leaders – Joseph Stalin (1924–1953), Nikita Khrushchev (1953–1964), Leonid Brezhnev (1964–1982), and Mikhail Gorbachev (1985-1991) – were marked by distinct approaches to governance, reflecting the changing priorities and challenges of the Soviet Union during the 20th century.

Under Stalin, the Soviet Union became increasingly centralised as he outmanoeuvred his political opponents, including Trotsky and Nikolai Bukharin through purges. The Great Purge of 1936 targeted intellectuals, artists, economists, workers and peasants. However, this era of “bloody terror” also saw impressive industrial growth and consequent social transformations as well as the Soviet Union’s victory over Nazi Germany in World War II, which made Stalin a national hero.

After Stalin’s death in 1953, Khrushchev continued with some critical Stalinist institutions like one-party system, prison camps, political police, and collective farms, but also introduced reforms and a “thaw” in political and intellectual spheres. Some victims of Stalin’s purges were rehabilitated, and political openness increased modestly. 

Khrushchev’s notable reforms included the “Virgin Land Programme”, aimed at cultivating new lands in Central Asia and southern Siberia, and the doctrine of “peaceful coexistence” with the West. His tenure also witnessed the emergence of a consumer-oriented society and the rise of material culture in the USSR. 

Under Brezhnev, the Soviet Union achieved international prominence as a global superpower and maintained internal stability. His tenure was marked by consensus-driven governance and “real, existing socialism”. But Brezhnev’s era lacked bold reforms and saw economic stagnation. Consequently, it became the “golden age” for Nomenklatura (the Soviet elite). While Brezhnev provided stability, his leadership failed to address the underlying issues that would later contribute to the Soviet Union’s decline.

When Gorbachev came to power in 1985, the Soviet Union stood on the brink of transformation. After Gorbachev assumed the office of the General Secretary in March 1985, particularly since the April Plenum, the Soviet government revamped its policies to tackle the impending western challenges. Gorbachev’s policies of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring) aimed to revitalise the stagnating system.

However, Soviet intellectuals and conservatives expressed concerns that opening the USSR to Western ideas and information could undermine its cultural values, political stability, and ideological sovereignty. In 1988, a Soviet observer, Sergei Drozhin wrote in Zhurnalist, warning that the “free flow of global ideas and information would contaminate the intellectual environment and would threaten cultural and political sovereignty.”

Nonetheless, Gorbachev wanted the “democratisation” of polity, and held competitive elections in 1989. He also created the new position of President of the Soviet Republic in 1990 and took on the role himself. However, his attempts to purge the old guard (the Nomenklatura) and replace them with his own confidantes backfired, fuelling nationalist movements. Attacks on corrupt leaders in republics like Lithuania, Ukraine, and the Caucasus were interpreted as assaults on national pride, fanning the flames of separatism.

Thus, years of economic strain, coupled with social resentment and growing nationalist fervour, culminated in widespread unrest. Simultaneously, Russian nationalism surged under Boris Yeltsin, who became the President of the Russian Republic in June 1991 and began to act independently of the Soviet Union.

By the late 1980s, the USSR faced challenges from within and abroad. Gorbachev’s reforms inadvertently exposed internal contradictions. He envisioned transforming the USSR into a “voluntary union” of sovereign states under a new Constitution, but this initiative came too late to prevent the disintegration of the union.

The Eastern Bloc countries — comprising the USSR and its Warsaw Pact allies such as Poland, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia — chose to transition to democracy. The rise of nationalism in the Baltic states (Latvia, Lithuania, and Estonia), Ukraine and Caucasus further aggravated the situation as they began declaring independence. 

The Cold War between the two superpowers – the USA and the USSR – exacerbated the latter’s internal crises. Above all, it represented a clash of ideologies – capitalist democracy versus state-controlled socialism. At the height of the Cold War, the global information revolution appeared to potentially dislodge the Soviet Union and its ideology. In the meanwhile, the arms race, expensive nuclear programmes, and proxy wars in Vietnam, Afghanistan, and elsewhere had drained the Soviet economy. 

The USSR’s defeat in Afghanistan in 1989 was seen as one of the last major jolts when Soviet troops faced humiliation from the US-backed Mujahideen. The fall of the Berlin Wall in November 1989 symbolically heralded the beginning of the end. Internally, an attempted coup (Putsch) by Communist hardliners in August 1991 further destabilised the country. Although the Putschists failed, like in 1917, it underscored the weakening grip of the Communist Party.

In the aftermath, the Communist Party was immediately banned in Russia, and one by one, Soviet republics declared independence, starting with the Baltic states. By December 1991, Gorbachev found himself the President of a Union that no longer existed. 

Finally, on December 8, 1991, the Presidents of Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine met to formally dissolve the USSR and create the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). On December 21, eight additional republics joined the CIS in Alma Ata. However, the Baltic states and Georgia opted out.

On the evening of December 25, 1991, Gorbachev finally appeared on state television to announce his resignation, acknowledging that “the old system collapsed before a new one had time to start working.” The Soviet flag was lowered for the last time, symbolising the end of the USSR, and the cessation of a global superpower.